7 Key Concepts in Linguistic Justice
Overview
As people, we use language in a variety of different ways. How can we learn to differentiate between different language uses and variations? What are the distinguishing factors between English variations and linguistic identities? How can we learn to understand our own linguistic identities and those of the people around us?
In this chapter, we’ll explore key aspects of linguistic identity and language variations. We’ll analyze the significance of regional vernaculars like African American Vernacular English (AAVE), dialects, accents, registers, and slang.
In reviewing these different concepts, we will also discuss the ties between language and identity, as well as the harm that linguistic stereotypes and appropriation can have on communities. We’ll analyze several media examples and reflect on our own linguistic identities and practices, as well as those of others. The goal here is to develop a stronger understanding of linguistic ideologies and understand their importance in the context of acknowledging and respecting diversity.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you’ll be able to:
- Define key terms for linguistic identity, including registers, accents, and dialects
- Identify key language variations, such as AAVE, and linguistic techniques, such as code-switching or code-meshing
- Articulate and reflect on personal linguistic identities
- Analyze the impacts and effects of language attitudes using real-world case studies
Defining Linguistic Identity and English Variations:
When considering our own linguistic identities, it’s essential that we acknowledge the factors that make up the multiple “linguistic identities” held by us and our communities. A linguistic identity is the unique combination of registers, regional vernaculars, dialects, accents, and slang that collectively form the way we speak. Over the course of this chapter, we’ll examine the importance of these factors through the lenses of communication and culture.
Watch: “Why Language Shapes Identity (more than race)” (~5 mins)
Linguistic Key Concepts
The following linguistic key concepts will help you to better understand the various aspects of linguistic identity. These concepts play a key part in identifying language characteristics in ourselves and others, as well as understanding how linguistic identities are shaped by rhetorical context.
Registers
Your “register” refers to the level of formality you use when communicating. Registers can be both written and spoken, and we often change them to suit different contexts. For example, consider the differences between the way you address your professor vs. your parents vs. your dog.
Watch: “Language Registers” (~10 mins)
Reflection
Take a moment to consider these questions about registers:
- How conscious are you of the registers you use on a daily basis? Based on the video, which are they?
- How does your use of registers impact the way you navigate everyday communication?
- How do you change your register depending on who you’re speaking to?
Test your knowledge of different language registers with the following multiple-choice questions:
Accents
Accents are the unique combination of pronunciation, intonation, stress, and rhythm that people use while speaking. They are an important part of social and cultural identity for many groups, and can include state, regional, and international accents. Accents can provide us with important information about a speaker’s background, social group, and status. In some cases, non-native speakers may develop accents that reflect the phonologies of their native languages.
Watch: “50 People Show Us Their States’ Accents” (~5 mins)
Controversy of “Blaccents,” Representations of Black Culture, and Dismantling Stereotypes
Many white and non-Black performers, as well as some non-Black communities, appropriate “Black English” as a chic or performative aspect of their day-to-day life. The use of “Black English” by non-Black individuals perpetuates stereotypes that are both harmful and disrespectful toward the experience and overall culture of Black communities. The following video explains how non-Black performers harm Black artists and their communities’ representation through their appropriation of “Blaccent”. It’s important to note that performing “Blaccent” can be offensive and harmful, even if that is not the speaker’s intention.
Watch: “What Is Blaccent And Why Do People Keep Using It?” (~10 mins)
Activity: Thinking Critically about Accents
In a few paragraphs, reflect on how your use of language is related to your identity, as well as how stereotyped or problematic representations of accents can be harmful. Consider the following questions while you write.
- How do accents play a role in your understanding of your personal or community background and social group?
- What are some stereotyped accents you’ve seen in movies or TV?
- What stereotypes have you encountered about people with certain accents?
- What are some ways that you think stereotypical thoughts around Black English can be dismantled?
Vernacular and Dialect
A vernacular, or dialect, of American English is the collective pronunciation, syntax, and vocabulary associated with and used by people in a given community. Vernaculars can differ significantly from Standard American English. African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a notable vernacular of American English.
A dialect is a regional variety of language distinguished by features of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation from other regional varieties and constituting together with them a single language.
Note that “vernacular” and “dialect” are often used interchangeably, but there are some notable differences, as you can see in the following table:
| Vernacular | Dialect | |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | Informal language spoken by a specific group or community | Regional or social variety of a language |
| Usage | Typically used within a specific community or subgroup | Used within a particular region or social group |
| Characteristics | Often includes slang, colloquialisms, and local terms | May involve distinct vocabulary, grammar, and accents |
| Variation | Can vary widely within a community or subgroup | Can vary significantly between regions or social groups |
| Influence | Reflects cultural and social identity | Reflects regional or social identity |
In the following video by Babbel USA, Sierra Boone presents the complexities of AAVE when considering the line drawn between Black American English (BAE), African American Vernacular English (AAVE), and Internet slang. She presents the rich history and grammatical structure of BAE and AAVE, as well as their cultural impact in today’s society. While watching, pay particular attention to:
- The features and heritage of AAVE
- The grammatical importance of AAVE and its evolution
Watch: “AAVE Explained: A Dialect That Transcends Internet Culture” (~7 mins)
Reflection
- Based on Boone’s explanation in the video above, would AAVE be classified as a vernacular, a dialect, or both?
- Think about a specific slang or colloquial word that you use on a daily basis. What is the word? Where did you learn it?
- Do some research on that word and figure out what its origins are. What is its historical and social significance?
Other Vernaculars and Dialects: Mexican and Latinx Community, and the Meaning of “Pocho”
In the article “Mexicano, Chicano, or Pocho. Who am I?” by Borderzine: Reporting Across Fronteras [Website], Andres Gallegos provides a personal account of the meaning and complexities of the term “pocho,” along with an explanation of its historical and political implications.
The video below explains the language complexities that exist at the El Paso-Mexico border regarding different levels of Spanish fluency among Latinx individuals. It highlights the ways that calling someone “pocho” can either be positive or damaging — the particularities of “pocho” language are heavily influenced by regional and cultural aspects of El Paso-Mexico relations and the in-between nature of borderlands.
Watch: “Is ‘pocho’ an insult or not? Depends on your perspective” (~2 mins)
“No Sabo Kids”
On TikTok and YouTube, “No Sabo Kids” has become a common phrase for referring to non-Spanish-speaking children of Spanish-speaking immigrant parents or grandparents. For some, including self-described “No Sabo Kids”, the term provides a more comical perspective on what it sounds and looks like to not speak Spanish as a member of the Latinx community.
Reflection
What are your thoughts on the phenomenon of children who are not able to speak their parents’ or grandparents’ native language? This can be in the context of Spanish or any other language.
Code-Switching and Code-Meshing in Communities of Color
Continuing our breakdown of linguistic identity, let’s take a look at “code-switching” and “code-meshing.”
- Code-switching is the practice of alternating between two or more languages or varieties of language in conversation.
- Code-meshing is a communication technique that involves combining different languages or dialects within a single context. It’s based on the idea that all languages and dialects are equally complex and valuable, and that English is a fluid language that can be used in many ways.
It’s important to understand the value of code-switching within communities of color as it relates to day-to-day communication. While code-switching feels like second nature to some people, it is actually a complex and fluid technique for evaluating a situation and using the form of language that best fits that situation. Below, we’ll review some examples that provide some insight into code-switching and, in some cases, code-meshing. Note that code-meshing can happen alongside code-switching.
Watch: “Code-Switching” (~4 mins)
Reflection
- Which points raised in the “Code-Switching” video were new to you?
- If you don’t have to code-switch in your day-to-day life, what did you learn from these perspectives?
Next, you will find some examples of code-switching in popular culture!
In “Sorry to Bother You” [YouTube Video], we see a scene where code-switching is satirized to draw attention to the expectations around how individuals should sound at work or in positions of power. The following video explains the purpose of code-switching, deliberate or otherwise.
Watch: “Satirizing ‘code-switching’ on screen” (~3 mins)
Watch: “Jay Learns Spanish For Gloria | Modern Family” (~2 mins)
In this example, Sofía Vergara’s character in Modern Family, Gloria, gives a monologue about what it means to code-switch and how it makes her feel. Specifically, Gloria mentions that she does a lot of translating in her head before speaking in English. For monolingual speakers, this example provides a window into how code-switching works for people who speak more than one language.
Finally, in this last video, “To Code Switch or Not Code Switch? That is the Question” [YouTube Video], Katelynn Duggins presents other important aspects of code-switching that go beyond seeing code-switching as just a linguistic phenomenon.
Watch: “To Code Switch or Not Code Switch? That is the Question” (~8 mins)
Now, take some time to gather ideas about code-switching and build from the examples provided.
Sample Assignment: Linguistic Identity Manifesto
Overview
- Genre: Your submission should be a manifesto (a declaration of values and intentions).
- Context: In BIPOC communities, there are many linguistic identities, forms of communication, and language attitudes. Writers and scholars widely agree that language is not only connected to our sense of self, but also gives us a sense of belonging within our community. However, the language(s) we speak (and how we speak them) can also exclude us from other communities, and sometimes even our own.
- Assignment: Self-exploration is important for our development as individuals and our relationships with others. In this project, you will explore your linguistic identity. You will then reflect on what positive changes could make the world a better place for people of different linguistic backgrounds. You’ll consider the importance of community, family, friends, and other social groups as parts of this identity.
Structure
- Introduction: Define your linguistic identity, and be specific! Identify the lived experiences, issues, injustices, thoughts, and ideas that shape your perspective. This section should make it clear to readers what your primary claims are and what points you will make in your manifesto.
- Vision statement: Present a clear and inspiring vision of the desired future state, outlining the positive outcome you want to see, as well as the issues and injustices these will combat.
- Core beliefs and principles: List the key values and guiding principles that shape your goals.
- Call to action: State what actions the reader can take to contribute to the desired change, including specific steps or strategies. You can include up to three steps or strategies, or a combination of both.
Considerations and Guidelines
- Length: You should aim for 1,500-2,000 words total, regardless of the medium(s) you choose. Avoid filler. If you feel that your project should be shorter or longer given your chosen format, discuss this with your professor.
- Strong language: Use powerful, illustrative language to inspire readers to take action.
- Credibility: Support your claims with evidence and expertise where appropriate. You should include at least three sources that help your reader understand your point(s). At least one of those sources should be an academic or peer-reviewed source.
- Multimodality: Your manifesto will be in the form of a newsletter, comic, video, or podcast.
- Positive framing: Emphasize the benefits of the proposed change(s) instead of dwelling on the negatives.
- Audience and purpose: Tailor your language and tone to resonate with your intended audience. Your audience consists of your classmates, your instructor, and a wider USF community of students and professors. Create a conversation around the linguistic identity that you believe you are part of based on your personal experiences.
- Finish strong: Include a conclusion that refreshes your reader on the main concepts you presented, as well as your insights and conclusions.
- Formatting and Citation: All references should be cited and formatted in either APA or MLA style.
As a starting point for your own exploration, consider these perspectives on linguistic identity:
Identities are double-edged swords because, while functioning in a positive and productive way to give people a sense of belonging, they do so by defining an “us” in opposition to a “them” that becomes all too easy to demonize. Studying the construction of identities is important precisely because it offers our best hope for helping to undo their negative impact, while at the same time providing deeper insight into the role languages play in our interpretation of who does or doesn’t belong to which particular group.
–John E. Joseph
So, if you want to really hurt me, talk badly about my language. Ethnic identity is twin skin to linguistic identity — I am my language. Until I can take pride in my language, I cannot take pride in myself.
–Gloria Anzaldúa
University of San Francisco Linguistic Identity Manifesto Student Examples
“Culture, Language, and Me!” by Mia Manalili
“The Linguistic Tales of the Super Code-Switcher” by Alyssa Guevara
“Linguistic Identity” by Chris Gonzalez
Works Cited
Babbel USA. “AAVE Explained: A Dialect That Transcends Internet Culture.” YouTube, 15 July 2021, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dnOLKqhx_Co.
Borderzine Reporting across Fronteras. “Is ‘Pocho’ an Insult or Not? Depends on Your Perspective.” YouTube, 20 May 2019, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dFTNnAT5CqQ.
Condé Nast Traveler. “50 People Show Us Their States’ Accents | Culturally Speaking | Condé Nast Traveler.” YouTube, 17 June 2019, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UcxByX6rh24.
Duggins, Katelynn. “To Code Switch or Not to Code Switch? That Is the Question. | Katelynn Duggins | TEDxMaysHighSchool.” YouTube, 9 Feb. 2018, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sncGGjaYJ5I.
Gallegos, Andres. “Mexicano, Chicano, or Pocho. Who Am I?” Borderzine, 8 Jan. 2018, borderzine.com/2018/01/mexicano-chicano-or-pocho-who-am-i/.
Gonzalez, Chris. “Linguistic Identity.” Rhetoric 110, University of San Francisco, Linguistic Identity Manifesto Graphic Narrative, 10 Nov. 2025.
Guevara, Alyssa. “The Linguistic Tales of the Super Code-Switcher.” Rhetoric 110, University of San Francisco, Linguistic Identity Manifesto, Graphic Narrative, 26 Oct. 2022.
Hulu. “Jay Learns Spanish for Gloria | Modern Family | Hulu.” YouTube, 26 May 2023, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t34JMTy0gxs.
Manalili, Mia. “Culture, Language, and Me!”. Rhetoric 110, University of San Francisco, Linguistic Identity Manifesto Graphic Narrative, 12 Nov. 2025.
PBS Origins. “What Is Blaccent And Why Do People Keep Using It?” YouTube, 11 Apr. 2022, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8mXaccYFKRQ.
Pugoy, Rainiel Angelo. “LANGUAGE REGISTERS -Rainiel Angelo Pugoy.” YouTube, 13 Nov. 2020, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwjI0Hgh4Lk.
Rotten Tomatoes Coming Soon. “Sorry to Bother You Movie Clip – White Voice (2018) | Movieclips Coming Soon.” YouTube, 18 July 2018, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T5X3cu1B87k.
Scripps News. “Satirizing ‘code-switching’ on screen.” YouTube, 6 July 2018, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CJkE_CxUHaI.
TEDx Talks. “Why Language Shapes Identity (More than Race) | Malaka Grant | TEDxGeorge.” YouTube, 22 Dec. 2024, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3nKPLdZx8RY.
The Language & Life Project. “Code-Switching.” YouTube, 18 Aug. 2017, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VpLQmyS7-jw.
Attributions
This chapter was written by Melisa Garcia.
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