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2 The Rhetorical Situation

Overview

Rhetoric is most often defined based on what it can do, such as inform, persuade, or entertain. But it’s also a framework for knowing as well as doing. Rhetorical concepts help us analyze communication so that we can be better equipped to judge how ethical and effective it is. This can help us make decisions about whether or not to change our beliefs or actions as a result of a message.

This chapter covers one of the foundational rhetorical concepts we’ll be referring to throughout this book: the rhetorical situation. This refers to the dynamic interaction between the author or speaker, audience, message, and context. These elements shape how a rhetorical message is crafted and interpreted. Understanding how these elements come together can both help us evaluate a message and help us ensure that our own messages effectively respond to, and shape, the situation.

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this chapter, you’ll be able to:

  • Identify and understand components of the rhetorical situation, including the speaker, audience, context, purpose, and exigence — in various texts and scenarios
  • Analyze contextual factors, including cultural, historical, and social influences on the construction and reception of rhetorical messages
  • Critically evaluate rhetorical strategies (e.g., determining how effectively a speaker or writer responds to the rhetorical situation, or shapes our perception of it)

The Rhetorical Situation

Infographic: five rhetorical situation elements—speaker, context, exigence, audience, purpose—around central title with brief definitions. (Accessible Word version available)

Figure 2.1. Diagram of the rhetorical situation (Rhetorical_Situation_Accessible_Infographic [New Tab])

What makes a message good — or even great? How do some texts or forms of public communication get their point across so effectively? What makes them touchstones of great rhetoric? I’m thinking of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” [Video] speech or Gloria Anzaldúa’s book, Borderlands/La Frontera [Website] (“Borderlands”). Who determines which texts are great, and how do they decide?

The rhetorical situation offers one way of answering the question, “What makes a message great?”

The “rhetorical situation” refers to the circumstances that bring persuasive messages into existence. The term was first introduced by rhetorician Lloyd Bitzer in his 1968 article, “The Rhetorical Situation” [Website], as a way to distinguish what makes rhetorical communication different from other kinds of communication, like poetry or scientific communication (Bitzer). He argued that a rhetorical situation is a situation that can be changed or improved through persuasive communication. And so rhetoric is defined by the way it “fits” or “responds” to that situation.

Examples of Rhetorical Situations

  • Presidential Election: This is a rhetorical situation because voters can be persuaded by messages — like editorials, political ads, or debates — to choose one candidate over another (or simply to participate by voting). Different voters will be persuaded by different messages or arguments.
  • Criminal Trial: The lawyers in this situation use their arguments to persuade the jury to declare the accused innocent or guilty.
  • High School Graduation: This example is more subtle, but it can be classified as a rhetorical situation because a valedictorian’s speech at a high school graduation ceremony can influence the crowd to accept a particular definition of “achievement” or “success.”

The concept emphasizes that rhetoric is motivated by particular goals and can be tailored to specific contexts and audiences. It helps us understand that, because rhetoric needs to be adapted to fit specific human needs in particular times and places, there’s no single, universal standard for excellence.

The rhetorical situation can help communicators and audiences determine why messages exist, what they aim to do, and how they aim to do it.

Elements of the Rhetorical Situation

Bitzer claimed that the rhetorical situation is comprised of the following key elements:

Author (Speaker/Writer)

The author is the individual, group, or organization that creates a message. Every author brings a frame of reference to the rhetorical situation that affects how and what they say about a subject. Their frame of reference is influenced by many factors, including their experiences, values, needs, race, gender, education, geography, and institutional affiliations.

Audience [Website]

Most messages have a target audience. Audiences encounter and, in some way, use the message based on their own experiences, values, and needs (that may or may not be the same as the author’s). Successful authors or speakers will often adjust their messages to align with their audience’s level of background knowledge, motivations, and values (Jory).

Purpose

The purpose is what the author and the message aim to achieve. What motivated the author to communicate in the first place? What is the goal of their message? What do they want their audience to believe, think, or do?

Context

The context refers to the specific occasion or situation in which a message is being delivered or received (like a graduation ceremony or funeral), as well as wider social, cultural, geographic, political, and institutional factors. These influence what feels most familiar, relevant, or urgent to the audience, and therefore the kinds of references and connections that might be most advantageous to the speaker.

Exigence [Website]

The exigence is an aspect of the context. It refers to the perceived need for the message, the problem, or an “urgent imperfection” a communicator identifies and then responds to through their messages. Often, the purpose of the speech is related to convincing the audience to fix or address the exigence in some way (Jory).

In the following video, Leigh Meredith, a USF professor of Rhetoric and Language, reviews the elements of the rhetorical situation. Note that much of the information in the video recaps and expands on the information above — so if you feel you understand the basic elements of the rhetorical situation, feel free to skip to Part II.

Watch: “The Rhetorical Situation, Part 1” (~8 mins)

Applying the Rhetorical Situation

OK, but how does this work in practice? Let’s work through a specific example. Watch the videos below to see how each of the components of the rhetorical situation can be applied to analyze the effectiveness of a message. In this case, we’ll analyze a famous presidential speech intended to address a shocking public tragedy. Note that while the rhetorical situation is being applied to a speech here, it can be applied just as effectively to written or digital messages.

Our case study will focus on former President Ronald Reagan’s 1986 “Challenger” speech, given in the wake of the mid-launch explosion of the space shuttle Challenger. To get a sense of that context, watch this super-short preview of the New York Times “Retro Report” on the explosion and its aftermath. The video ends just before the actual explosion.

Watch: Context for Ronald Reagan’s “Challenger” Speech (1 min)

 

Now that you understand the context, watch and listen as former President Reagan addresses the American public in the hours after the explosion.

Watch: Watch Reagan’s “Challenger” Speech (~5 mins)

 

Finally, check out how Prof. Meredith identifies each element of the rhetorical situation and uses them to comment on the effectiveness of the speech. She ends by introducing an ongoing question about the nature of the rhetorical situation — does the situation define the rhetorical response, or does the rhetoric define the situation it addresses?

Watch: Rhetorical Situation Analysis of Reagan’s Speech (~13 mins)

Test Your Knowledge

Activity: Analyze the Rhetorical Situation

Now that you’ve reviewed the rhetorical situation, it’s time to apply these concepts for yourself.

Watch: Oprah Winfrey’s speech accepting the Cecil B. DeMille Award at the Golden Globes in 2018 (~9 mins)

You can also access the Oprah Winfrey speech transcript here[Website].

After watching, address the following questions:

  • Pick 3-4 specific moments during which you notice Oprah effectively addressing the rhetorical situation (context, exigence, speaker, audience, purpose). Explain how each of these moments addresses that specific aspect of the rhetorical situation.
  • Consider the debate about whether or not rhetoric responds to or shapes the situation (as covered in the video analysis above). Take a stand on that question, using Oprah’s Golden Globes speech as an example. Does Oprah’s speech respond to or shape the audience’s understanding of this situation? Write 4-5 sentences taking a stance on this question and supporting your argument using at least two specific examples from Oprah’s speech.

Conclusion

As a communicator, it’s important to consider the rhetorical situations in which you find yourself. This will help you produce more powerful texts — messages that adapt to the situation and are responsive to others’ needs, values, and expectations. This is true whether you’re presenting a project in class, writing an email for work, or creating an Instagram post for a club or organization.

As an audience member, considering the rhetorical situation can help you develop a more detailed understanding of others and their messages, and help you figure out if you want to change your beliefs or actions in response to those messages.

Further Reading and Resources

Works Cited

Anzaldúa, Gloria. Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza. Aunt Lute Books, 1987.

Bitzer, Lloyd F. “The Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy & Rhetoric, vol. 1, no. 1, Jan. 1968, pp. 1-14. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40236733.

“Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza.” Wikipedia, 25 May 2025, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borderlands/La_Frontera:_The_New_Mestiza.

Hallsby, Atilla. “Chapter 10: The Rhetorical Situation.” The Rhetoric Untextbook, The University of Minnesota Libraries, 2022, https://the-un-textbook.ghost.io/chapter-10-the-rhetorical-situation/.

Jory, Justin. “The Rhetorical Situation.” Open English @ SLCC, Pressbooks, 2021, https://pressbooks.pub/openenglishatslcc/chapter/the-rhetorical-situation/.

King, Martin Luther, Jr. “I Have a Dream speech by Martin Luther King .Jr HD (subtitled).” YouTube, 7 Nov. 2017, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vP4iY1TtS3s.

Meredith, Leigh. “Rhetorical Situation, Part II: Analysis of the Challenger Speech.” YouTube, USFCA Rhetoric and Language, 1 July 2025, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nKEMvRYPRfk.

Meredith, Leigh. “RhetoricalSituation2.” Canva, 29 July 2025, licensed under CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license.

“Oprah Winfrey’s Golden Globes speech: Read the full transcript.” CNN, 8 Jan. 2018, www.cnn.com/2018/01/08/entertainment/oprah-globes-speech-transcript/index.html.

Reagan, Ronald. “President Ronald Reagan’s Speech on Space Shuttle Challenger.” YouTube, US National Archives, 25 Sept. 2015, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqilE4AAa-M.

“Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster | Retro Report Preview | The New York Times.” YouTube, The New York Times, 30 May 2014, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gOaRW22y1Uw.

Tradlands. “Oprah Winfrey at the Golden Globes.” Flickr, 3 Jan. 2018, licensed under CC BY (Attribution) license, https://www.flickr.com/photos/tradlands/38718624685/in/photostream/.

Vatz, Richard E. “The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy and Rhetoric, vol. 6, no. 3, Summer 1973, pp. 154–161.

Winfrey, Oprah. “Oprah Winfrey Receives the Cecil B. deMille Award – Golden Globes 2018.” YouTube, Golden Globes, 8 Jan. 2018, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LyBims8OkSY.

Attributions

This chapter was written and remixed by Leigh Meredith. Portions of this chapter were adapted from Justin Jory’s The Rhetorical Situation (SLC Community College Pressbook).

Media Attributions

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